I must agree with Ben Crowell--I am not aware of anything of the sort in the US. The closest I can think of is the Wonderland trailWonderland trail--it circles a mountain, there are designated places to spend the night but it's backcountry camping, you're packing in and out everything. There four points on the trail you can cache supplies (but you can only use three as one will be your trailhead), two of which sell some supplies. There's a lot of natural water, but you'll have to filter it.
The total loop is 150km with 6,700m of total climb.